Portuguese Magic – In Roman Times

Before the first Invasion of the Roman legions circa 150 BC, the western coast of Iberia for a distance of about 200 km inland was occupied by an autochthonic people consisting of, from north to south, the Gallaecian, Lusitanian and Turdetanian tribes. These were often in conflict with each other but shared religious beliefs of animist and naturalistic nature which attributed holiness to locations such as rivers and springs, grottos and rocky outcrops.

Divination by augury of animals (including humans) had been introduced by Celtic invaders who had conquered many of the hilltop fortresses known as castros and was supervised by shamans often in the sacred settings of dolmen and menhirs with altars of stone.

Writing in his monumental Geographica, the ancient Greek philosopher Strabo tells us that the Lusitanian warriors were accustomed to slaughter prisoners on such altars after covering the victim with sack-cloth. The exposed entrails and flow of blood was then examined to forecast the outcome of proposed battles while hands were amputated to be offered on the altar of Cosus, a Celtic deity of war.

Strabo also recounts how a sea-creature “of wonderful bigness” was stranded on a beach near Setubal in the year 550 BC causing terror among the local people who surmised that it could be the Greek ocean god Poseidon. As an appeasement, a maiden and a boy were sacrificed and their bodies carried out to sea with that of the beast. Such was the importance given to this manifestation that sacrificial ceremonies were repeated annually until the advent of Christianity.

In addition to the Celtic influence, Carthaginians, Phoenicians and Greeks all established trading settlements along the western coast. Their inscriptions and written records were collated by Professor Alain Tranoy who wrote a history of pre-Roman religiosity in Portugal. This included many references to the use of magic apparatus such as voodoo dolls, charm bracelets and potions. Shape changing of the human form and transformation to animals seemed to be popular especially with the renowned Mouras Encantadas who favoured serpentine disguise when guarding the entrances to the underworld.

When Julius Caesar completed military control in 60 BC, he was unsurprised to find a pantheon of more than sixty deities that could be identified with those of Rome and the many conquered nations whose soldiers were numerous in the legions which he commanded. Wisely, the Romans decided that a policy of tolerance and eventual assimilation would achieve an integrated society in place of the “Barbarian”.

Male magicians had been an integral part of the Roman civilisation since its inception in 750 BC. They were present in every stratum of society but especially so with the military elite who found their advice before campaigns to be indispensable. Using astrology and an interpretation of the flight patterns of certain birds such as ravens and eagles and the analysis of dreams, they made predictions which often chanced to be correct and thus gained much respect.

Female magicians had a lower profile and often were employed by the wealthy as a mixture of housekeeper, nanny and concubine with a responsibility to maintain health by the administration of homemade potions and incantations to cast spells of love and success.

Some of these sorcerers/esses voyaged to Roman Portugal and were present in the many military camps which grew to be settlements and cities. As they shared temples and sanctuaries with the indigenous people, so did magic practices amalgamate.

Apotropaic amulets were made and sold by magicians to be worn or carried by people who sought protection from the “evil eye” and other supernatural risks. The material used could range from metals to marble and ivory and could either be symbolic or carry a short inscription which described their purpose. One of the most popular designs was that of a phallus and a hand with pointed finger which could also be interpreted as an aid to fertility or amorous success.

A variation of the amulet was the curse tablet (defixione) in which a longer petition was written beseeching justice and/or the punishment of a thief or offender. Usually, thin lead or an alloy was used as this could be rolled in a fabric and sent to the deity to whom it was addressed by using wells, sacred pools, caves and dolmen as post boxes. Alternatively, they were nailed to the walls of sanctuaries. The language was invariably Latin but commonly in the vernacular form which posed some interpretation difficulty to Professor Roger Tomlin, the archeologist who unearthed a large collection at Alcáçer do Sa (ancient Salacia). The inscriptions follow a standard form similar to that of a soldier making a request to his commander for leave of absence.

Such tablets have been found at many other Roman sites in Portugal of which the Sanctuary of Endovelicus is a prime example of religiosity as expressed throughout the Roman occupation and beyond. It is located on a rocky outcrop close to the village of Terena, Alandroal and was built as part of a fortified village at the very beginning of the first millennium AD.

It replaced a nearby hill-top temple which had been dedicated by pre-Roman tribes to their deity Endovellico who was a benevolent god of good fortune and well-being. Very little physical evidence remains of the building but from later plaques and inscriptions it would appear that the ceremonies included induced sleep (incubatio) for interpretation of dreams, the administration of potions and divination

The same ceremonies were performed on a larger scale in the new temple by Roman priests who catered to a cosmopolitan congregation some of whom had travelled as pilgrims from afar. Magic of a beneficial nature was permitted at that time under the surveillance of Roman law so the casting of spells and the use of hypnosis was permitted to bring success to worshippers seeking help with the affairs of business, farming and erotic love. This was recorded on many marble slabs brought from nearby mines some of which can be seen in the National Archeological Museum but many were looted together with fine statues and twenty marble columns from what must have been an impressive building. The sanctuary continued in use after conversion to Christian purposes and even as a mosque during the time of the Moors.

At the beginning of the 5^th century the Iberian peninsula was invaded by Germanic tribes. The Suevi first established a stable government in Galicia and then spread southwards as far as the Tagus. They had converted from paganism to Arianism, an austere form of Christianity but later changed to Nicene Catholicism. This brought about a hardening of toleration for magic except for the “white” form which dealt with healing and propitious living. However, arcane practices continued and were accepted by the Visigoths who assumed complete control of the Suevia kingdom in 585 AD.

The Roman influence and traditions remained until the invasion of the Moors and the defeat of the Visigoths at the battle of Guadalete in 711 AD. In the nine hundred years since their first coming, the Roman political and religious way of life changed in many ways but the attitude towards magic generally remained favourable provided that its direction was eudaemonic. A reading of Apuleius – both The Defence and his metamorphoses in The Golden Ass – can be instructive in this respect!

An essay by Roberto Cavaleiro Tomar 21 April 2026